GLOSSARY

Absolute Advantage

An advantage that a country has in producing certain goods or services relative to all or many other countries due to specific factors of production at its disposal.  This could include rich farmland and a favourable climate for agricultural production, or a highly educated labour force for high-tech manufacturing.

Absolute and Relative Poverty

Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is the same in all countries and does not change over time. The concept of absolute poverty is that there are minimum standards below which no-one anywhere in the world should fall below. Relative poverty refers to falling behind most others in the community.  In relation to income, a person is absolutely poor if their income is less than the defined income poverty line in that country, while they are relatively poor if they belong to a bottom income group (for e.g. the poorest 20%).

Absolute Poverty Line

The income or expenditure level below which a minimum nutritionally adequate diet plus essential non-food requirements are not affordable. The most common absolute poverty line is US$1-a-day and the US$2-a-day line.

$1-a-day Poverty Line - The international poverty line for absolute poverty set by the World Bank in 1990, and adjusted for various purchasing power parities. People living at or below this level are said to be in extreme poverty.

$2-a-day Poverty Line - The second international poverty line for poverty set by the World Bank, and adjusted for various purchasing power parities. People living at or below this level are said to be in poverty, though not to the extent of those living under $1 a day.

Access to Safe Water

The percentage of a population with reasonable means of getting safe water – either treated surface water or clean untreated water from springs, wells, or protected boreholes.

Adult Illiteracy

Percentage of the population aged 15 years and older who cannot, with understanding, read and write a simple statement about their everyday life.

Adult Literacy Rate

Percentage of persons aged 15 and over who can read and write at a basic level.

Affirmative Action

An American public policy approach that aims to eliminate the current effects of past discrimination.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

A set of symptoms and infections considered to be the result of damage to the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

AIDS Orphans

Children and adolescents under 18 years who have lost one or both parents to AIDS. Those who have lost both parents are often called double orphans.

AIDS-related Discrimination

The deliberate exclusion of those infected or perceived to be infected with HIV and/or AIDS.

Aids-related Stigma

Refers to a pattern of prejudice, discounting, discrediting, and discrimination directed at people that have or are perceived to have HIV and/or AIDS. The stigma can also be directed towards family members related to the infected person.

Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs)

Antiretroviral Treatment/Therapy (ART) are medications for the treatment of infection by retrovirus, primarily HIV that can work to inhibit the weakening of and sometimes even strengthen the immune system, protecting patients from developing opportunistic infections and allowing for increased life expectancy.

Apartheid

An official policy of racial segregation formerly practiced in the Republic of South Africa, involving political, legal, and economic discrimination against non-whites.

Basic Education

Education intended to meet basic learning needs; it includes instruction at the first or foundation level, on which subsequent learning can be based.

Bilateral Aid

Financial or material assistance provided to an individual developing country by a single donor country (as distinguished from multilateral aid, which is given to a country by an international organisation such as the EU or UN).

Birth Rate

The number of live births in a year expressed as a percentage of the population or per 1,000 people.

Brain Drain

The mass emigration of a country’s highly skilled and professional class, generally due to poverty, lack of opportunity, conflict or political instability.

Carbon Tax

The public's recognition of global warming has driven lawmakers around the world to negotiate greenhouse-gas reductions. Carbon tax is one of two major market-based options to lower emissions.

CEDAW – The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

CEDAW adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an International Bill of Rights for women. Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.

Climate Change

Climate Change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years.

Cold War, The

The global state of tension and military rivalry that existed from 1945 to 1990 involving the United States and the former Soviet Union and their allies.

Commitment

A firm obligation, expressed in writing and backed by the necessary funds, undertaken by an official donor to provide specified assistance to a recipient country or a multilateral organization.

Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC)

The CRC was agreed to by the UN General Assembly in 1989.  The Convention rests on four basic principles: non-discrimination (article 2); best interests of the child (article 3); the child’s right to life, survival and development (article 5); and respect for the views of the child (article 12).

Corruption

When talking about poverty, the term 'corruption' usually refers either to bribes taken by judges, policemen, or other local government officers in developing nations, or to large-scale, deliberate mismanagement of money higher up in the government. Both of these actions take a large economic toll on the poor.

Crude Birth Rate

Annual number of births per 1,000 population.

Crude Death Rate

Annual number of deaths per 1,000 population.

Cycle of Poverty

A phenomenon where poor families become trapped in poverty for generations and with limited access to critical resources, such as education and financial services, subsequent generations are also impoverished.

DAC

Acronym for Development Assistance Committee. The DAC is the principal body through which the OECD deals with issues related to aid and co-operation with developing countries.  There are 23 members, comprising the world’s major aid donors.

Daily Calorie Requirement

The average number of calories needed to sustain normal levels of activity and health, taking into account age, sex, body weight and climate. It amounts to about 2,350 calories per person per day.

Daily per capita calories supply

The calorie equivalent of the net food supply (local production plus imports minus exports) in a country, divided by the population, per day.

Death Rate

The number of deaths in a year expressed as a percentage of the population or per 1,000 people.

Debt Relief

Cancellation of debts owed by developing nations to industrialised nations or institutions such as the World Bank, in order to allow the government to shift funds toward social development.

Deforestation

The permanent clearing of forestland for all agricultural uses and for settlements.  It does not include other alterations such as selective logging.

Dependency Ratio

The ratio of the population defined as dependent - those under 15 and over 65 - to the working age population, aged 15-64.

Developing Countries

Countries in which many people have a low economic standard of living. Also called the ‘Third World’, the ‘South’ and ‘less developed’ countries.

Ecological Footprinting

Ecological Footprinting is a measure of human demand on the earth's ecosystems. It compares human demand with planet earth’s ecological capacity to regenerate.

Economic Development

Raising the productive capacities of societies, in terms of their technologies (more efficient tools and machines), technical cultures (knowledge of nature, research and capacity to develop improved technologies), and the physical, technical and organisational capacities and skills of those engaged in production.

Economic Growth

A continued increase in the size of an economy (it’s GDP), i.e. a sustained increase in output over a period.

Education for All (EFA)

Provision of basic education in the sense of "expanded vision" proclaimed in the World Declaration on Education for All adopted by the World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs (Jomtien, Thailand, March 1990).

Ethical Consumption

Ethical consumerism is the intentional purchase of products and services that the customer considers to be made ethically. This may mean with minimal harm to or exploitation of humans, animals and/or the natural environment.

Ethnicity

Identifying characteristics shared by a group such as culture, custom, race, language, religion or other social distinctions.

Fair Trade

Fair Trade is an organised social movement and market-based approach that aims to help producers in developing countries and promote sustainability. The movement advocates the payment of a higher price to producers as well as social and environmental standards. It focuses in particular on exports from developing countries to developed countries - most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, bananas, honey, cotton, wine, fresh frit, chocolate and flowers.

Famine

A situation of extreme scarcity of food with the potential to lead to widespread starvation.

FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)

Foreign investment in developing countries.

Fertility Rate (total)

The average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime.

Food Security

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, food security exists "when all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life."

G8 Summit

International meeting of the most powerful countries in the world, where their leaders discuss current global issues.

Gender

The term gender refers to culturally based expectations of the roles and behaviours of men and women. The term distinguishes the socially constructed from the biologically determined aspects of being male and female.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Gender-based violence can be defined as: “violence involving men and women, in which the female is usually the victim and which arises from unequal power relationships between men and women”. Violence against women and girls is often referred to as “gender-based violence” because it evolves in part from women’s subordinate gender status in society.

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

The GEM measures women's ability to actively participate in economic and political life.

Gender Related Development Index (GDI)

This index is similar to the Human Development Index with account taken of gender inequalities. The greater the disparity in basic human development, the lower will be a country's GDI compared with its HDI.

Genocide

The systematic and planned extermination of a national, racial, political or ethnic group, in whole or in part.  The term "genocide" did not exist before 1944. International law requires collective action to oppose genocide.

Globalization

A process whereby an increased portion of economic or other activity is carried out across national borders.

GNI (Gross National Income)

The new term for GNP.

Grand Corruption

Corruption that takes place in higher levels of government, and involves large amounts of money mismanagement - for example, diverting funds from a social programme for personal use.

Grant

Transfers made in cash, goods or services for which no repayment is required.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

'Gross Domestic Product' refers to the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's economy over a specified period of time.

Gross Enrolment Ratio

The number of students enrolled at a certain level of education as a percentage of the population of the age group that officially corresponds to that level. Can be above 100 percent if some enrolled students are older or younger than the age group that officially corresponds to that level of education.

Gross National Product (GNP)

The total value of all goods and services produced in an economy in a given year plus all income received from abroad minus all payments sent abroad.

High-income Developing Economies

Economies that the United Nations classifies as developing even though their per capita incomes would place them with developed countries. This classification may be based on their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments.

HIV

(Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS. It may be transmitted through blood or, most often, through sexual fluids. There is still no cure or vaccine for HIV/AIDS, but the disease can be managed with antiretroviral treatment.

Human Capital

The knowledge, skills, and experience of people that make them economically productive. Human Capital can be increased by investment in education, health care and job training.

Human Development

A measure of well-being devised by the UN Development Programme based on economic growth, educational attainment and health.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A measure of human development using three equally weighted dimensions of human development – life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate and purchasing power.

Human Rights

The basic rights and freedoms due to each human being including the right to food and other basic necessities, the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law.   Human Rights are universal (everyone has them), indivisible (you can’t pick which ones to allow and which not to) and inalienable (we are born with them, they are not granted to us).

Human Trafficking

The illicit and often coerced movement or sale of people across or within borders, generally for the purposes of forced labour.

Humanitarian Aid

Humanitarian aid, or relief, is material or logistical assistance provided in response to crises such as wars or natural disasters, and is often solicited and provided ad hoc. 

Hunger

 A condition in which people do not get enough food to provide the nutrients (carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins, minerals and water) for fully productive, active and healthy lives.

Industrial Countries

Countries in which most people have a high economic standard of living (though there are often significant groups of people suffering from poverty). Also called the "developed countries" or the "North" or, the 'First World'.

Industrialised Nation

An industrialised, or developed, nation is a nation with high human development. Industrialised nations generally have almost no one living below US$1/$2 a day.

Inequality

When discussing poverty, inequality often refers to the income gap between the rich and poor of society. The greater the gap, the greater the inequality.

Inequality Ratio

The ratio between incomes of the richest and poorest people within a population (i.e. the comparison of the incomes of those who are in the richest 10% as against those in the poorest 10%).

Infant Mortality Rate

The annual number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births.

Inflation

An increase in overall prices, which leads to a decrease in purchasing power.

Infrastructure

The basic facilities, services and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society such as transportation, communications, financial, educational and health care systems.

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)

(ICERD) is a United Nations Convention. A second-generation human rights instrument, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination and the promotion of understanding among all races.

International Poverty Lines

The World Bank established a poverty line for international comparisons of $1.00 per day per person.

Knowledge Society

Refers to any society where knowledge is the primary production resource instead of capital and labour. It may also refer to the use a certain society gives to information. A knowledge society "creates, shares and uses knowledge for the prosperity and well-being of its people".

Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.  It arose from a 1997 international conference held in Japan. The agreement concerned a reduction in the production of greenhouse gases, the cause of the deterioration in the ozone layer.

Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

The least developed countries are those recognised by the UN as low-income countries encountering long-term impediments to economic growth, particularly low levels of human resource development and severe structural weaknesses.  

Life Expectancy at Birth

The number of years a new born infant would live if the prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same at the time of its birth.

Life-long Learning

Denotes an overall scheme aimed at restructuring the existing educational system and at developing the entire educational potential outside the education system; in such a scheme men and women are the agents of their own education.

Literacy

The ability to read and write. Literacy Rate – the estimated number of literate adults expressed as a percentage of the total adult population (15 years and above).

Literacy gender parity index (LGPI)

The ratio of the female to male adult literacy rates measures progress towards gender equity in literacy and the level of learning opportunities available for women in relation to those available to men.

Literacy Initiative for Empowerment

The LIFE initiative is run by UNESCO, and promotes literacy around the world.

Malaria

Malaria is a tropical disease spread by mosquitoes that, while nonexistent in developed nations, kills over one million people a year in developing nations, and takes a huge toll on economic productivity.

Malnutrition

A condition resulting from inadequate consumption (undernutrition) or excessive consumption of a nutrient; can impair physical and mental health, and can contribute to or result from infectious diseases.

Maternal Mortality Rates

The annual number of deaths of women from pregnancy related causes per 100,000 live births.

Mean Years of Schooling

The average number of years of schooling received per person aged 25 and over.

Migrant Workers

Men, women and children who migrate within or across borders (often seasonally) for work, usually for a few months or years at a time.

Military Expenditure

All expenditure of the defense ministry and other ministries on recruiting and training of military personnel as well as construction and the purchase of military supplies and equipment. Military assistance is included in the expenditures of the donor country.

Millennium Development Goals

Set of eight human development goals set by the United Nations in 2000. The goals address several poverty issues, and are intended to be achieved by 2015.

Multilateral Aid

Aid from institutions with an international membership, such as the World Bank, the African Development Bank, etc.

National Poverty Line

The poverty line deemed appropriate for a country by its authorities.

Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO)

Voluntary, charitable or community-based organisations formally outside the government system.

Official Development Assistance (ODA)

Aid provided by donor government (bi-lateral aid) and inter-governmental organisations (multi-lateral aid) to developing countries.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

An organisation that coordinates policy among developed countries. OECD member countries exchange economic data and create unified policies to maximize their countries' economic growth and help non-member countries develop more rapidly.

Patriarchy

A system of social and cultural organisation characterised by male dominance.

Poverty alleviation

Poverty alleviation (or reduction) describes strategies to eradicate poverty.

Poverty Eradication

Encompasses the will and strategies to stop all people from living in poverty.

Preventing mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT)

Refers to the methods used to prevent HIV from being transmitted to children in pregnancy, during birth or through breastfeeding.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

The true exchange rate of different currencies based on differences in standard of living and overall pricing among different nations.  This rate allows a standard comparison of real price levels between countries otherwise normal exchange rates may over or undervalue purchasing power.

Ratification

Ratification is the approval by the principal of an act of its agent where the agent shows authority to legally bind the principal.  Ratification of a Treaty - The ratification of international treaties is accomplished by filing instruments of ratification as provided for in the treaty.

Refugees

People who have fled their countries because of a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of their race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group, and who cannot or do not want to return.

Sanitation

Disposal of human waste. Sanitation, clean water, and good hygiene often go together in poverty alleviation/health projects addressing the issue.

Small Island Developing Nation

Developing nations that are limited in economic development by lack of landmass.

Social Responsibility

The principle that companies should contribute to the welfare of society and not be solely devoted to maximizing profits. 

Standard of Living

The level of well-being (of an individual, group or the population of a country) as measured by the level of income (for example, GNP per capita) or by the quantity of various goods and services consumed (for example, the number of cars per 1,000 people or the number of television sets per capita).

Sustainable Development

The reduction of hunger and poverty in environmentally sound ways. It includes the meeting of basic needs, expanding economic opportunities, protecting and improving the environment and promoting pluralism and democratic participation.

The Human Poverty Index

The human poverty index measures deprivation in basic human development and is made up of four indicators. These are the percentage of people expected to die before the age of 40, the percentage of adults who are illiterate, the percentage of people without access to safe water and to health services and the percentage on underweight children under five years of age.

Third World

A term originally coined by French anti-colonialist writer and activist Albert Sauvy who chose his phrase to echo the political struggles of French history where pre-revolutionary society was divided into  three ‘estates’ – first, second and third – the third estate represented the powerless in French politics and society.  Sauvy wanted to draw parallels with this ‘political’ reading of history.  The term later became popular in describing those states and societies not part of the first world — the capitalist, economically developed states led by the U.S. — or the second world — the communist states led by the Soviet Union.  Political leaders and commentators from poorer, less powerful states, adopted the term to describe themselves as being aligned to neither NATO or the Warsaw Pact, but instead composing a non-aligned "Third World."  The term has become controversial since the demise of the second world and as some commentators consider it to be pejorative and outdated preferring terms such as ‘Majority World’ or ‘Global South’.  Others disagree, preferring to continue to use a ‘political reading’ of the world, especially the ‘excluded’ world. 

Tied Aid

Official grants or loans where procurement of the goods or services involved is limited to the donor country or to a group of countries which does not include substantially all recipient countries.

Total Debt Service

the sum of principal repayments and interest actually paid in foreign currency, goods, or services on long-term debt, interest paid on short-term debt and repayments to the IMF. Total debt service is an important indicator to measure a country’s relative burden to service external debt.

Trade

Exchange of goods between people/organisations/countries. Open international trade can lead to economic improvement and can help individuals escape poverty by allowing them to sell goods on international markets.

TRIPS

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international agreement under the aegis of the World Trade Organisation.  It sets down minimum standards for several forms of intellectual property regulation, from copyright to trademarks, industrial designs and patents.

Under-five Mortality Rate

1.) The number of deaths of children under five years of age per 1,000 live births.

2.) The probability of dying between birth and exactly five years of age time 1,000

Underweight

(moderate and severe child malnutrition) - moderate refers to the percentage of children under age five who are below minus two standard deviations from the median weight for age of the reference population. Severe refers to the percentage of children under age five who are below minus three standard deviations from the median weight for age of the reference population

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948.  The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are entitled.

Universal Primary Education

The second United Nations Millennium Development Goal is to achieve Universal Primary Education, more specifically, to “ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling.”

Voluntary Aid

An informal term used to refer to development aid monies collected by charities and other voluntary sectors.  The term is used in order to distinguish such aid from ODA, which is derived from government revenue.

Vulnerability

Vulnerability refers to the economic instability of impoverished or almost-impoverished families.  Unexpected sicknesses and other difficulties can be all it takes to drive a family deep into poverty.